The Arab Republic of Egypt

Egypt’s history is considered by many as the history of the human civilizations in which ancient Egyptians introduced and created a Civilization that leads in arts, and architecture. This civilization astonished the world and its scientists with the amount of knowledge it possessed in diversified areas. Not only this but, Egypt was the first country in the ancient time that introduced writing principals with the creation of the hieroglyphic signs and letters. Ancient Egyptians with the creation of the documenting and recording their history as well as the events they have created and lived through. With this great step made, Egypt was moved from pre-historic ages to become the first country with a documented history, and stable systems which made Egypt a mother of all nations. Egypt had a historic, cultural and religious role. It was the land that hosted a number of Prophets and Messengers. Prophet Ibrahim, father of all prophets, peace be upon him, came to Egypt and married the Egyptian Hajar. Prophet Joseph (“Yusuf”) also came to Egypt and became a minister, then his father Prophet Jacob (“Ya’koub”) jointed him. Furthermore, the land of Egypt witnessed the most sacred dialogue between Allah may He be Glorified and His Messenger Moussa (Moses) peace be upon him. Egypt was a safe haven to the Holy Family, Virgin Mary, Jesus Christ as a child, and Joseph the carpenter. They moved across the country during their historical holy journey, It was God’s will that Egypt be forever a safe haven and oasis of peace, as well as a meeting point of all monotheistic over time. Over the course of history, Egypt witnessed a series of civilizations. Egypt was a cradle for the Pharaohnic, Greco-Roman, Coptic civilizations and a protectorate for Islamic civilization. Egyptians throughout stages of history enjoyed a character of love, tolerance, heartiness and hospitality. All such features brought them together under the Egyptian umbrella regardless of the religion factor.
Modern Egypt
By virtue of all his up-to-date all-encompassing reforms, Muhammad Ali is truly considered the founder of Modern Egypt. He built a powerful army as well as a military academy. A ship building industry was started in Boulaq, Cairo together with a shipyard in Alexandria. Special attention was given to agriculture and irrigation, where barrage s, dams and canals were built. In industry, Muhammad Ali adopted a policy to dispensing with foreign-made products, and creating national factories and plants to meet the needs of army and the public. In trade, he sought to provide security for internal trade routes and create a foreign trade fleet. During his reign, trade flourished. At the same time, Muhammad Ali was enthusiastically interested in spreading education to cater for government manpower needs. Schools of various levels and specialization were built and educational missions were sent to Europe to transfer modern sciences to Egypt. After his death, Muhammad Ali’s successor tried their best to follow his suit by attempting to catch up with European civilization. During the reign of Khedive Ismail, Egypt witnessed an awakening administration reform, while agriculture, industry, construction and architecture prospered. Most notable of his achievements was the establishment of the Opera House, railroads and the Suez Canal, which was opened to international navigation in 1869, Egypt witnessed many revolts against the foreign intervention. The nationalist movement grew stronger and several popular revolts took place. However, the Orabi Revolution in 1882 ended up with Egypt being occupied and declared a protectorate by Britain in 1914. Accordingly, Egypt officially broke off from Ottoman sovereignty. Thus, Egypt entered the 20th Century, writhing under the yoke of British colonialist rule, plundering its resources. Popular resistance and national movements soon escalated under the nationalist leaders: Mustafa Kamel, Muhammad Fareed and Sa’ad Zaghloul, leading the 1919 Revolution calling for independence. The British occupation of Egypt came to an end and the country was declared as an independent state in 1922. The first Egyptian constitution was issued in 1923.
Under the leadership of Gamal Abdel-Nasser, the July 1952 Revolution brought a host of achievements including the enactment of the first agrarian reform law and the first 5-year plan for socio-economic development in the history of Egypt (1960). Industry and production were developed. The Aswan High Dam was completed (1960-70). Outstanding achievements were also made in the fields of education, health, agriculture and construction. IN the field of foreign policy, Egypt adopted a policy of positive neutrality and encouraging national liberation movements. Cognizant since its inception of Egypt’s leading role in the Arab world, its growing military power untiring defense of the Palestine case in world forums, Israel launched a treacherous assault on June 5, 1967 against Egypt, Syria and Jordan, ending up with Israeli occupation of Sinai, the Golan Heights and the West Bank of Jordan. The Egyptian army managed successfully to stand the test of the Israeli troops in a war of attrition. In the meantime, the leader of the July Revolution, Gamal Abdel-Nasser, died on September 28, 1970. President Anwar Al-Sadat proceeded with the policy of mobilizing all state resources for the liberation of the occupied land. On October 6, 1973, both Egyptian and Syrian armies simultaneously launched a battle for liberating Arab lands from Israeli occupation. A few hours after the start of the war , the Egyptian army victoriously crossed to the east bank of the Suez Canal where the Egyptian banner was raised high. In the October War, Egyptian forces scored an outstanding victory. This prompted President Sadat to contemplate a radical settlement of the Arab-Israeli conflict and the establishment of a just and lasting peace in the Middle East. There followed the peace treaty with Israel (Camp David Accord) on March 26, 1979, with the participation of USA. This treaty was preceded by President Sadat’s visit to Israel in 1977. On April 25, 1982, Israel withdrew its forces from the Sinai Peninsula and later from the frontier strip of Taba pursuant to arbitration by the International Court of Justice. Following President Sadat’s death in 1981, President Muhammad Hosni Mubarak assumed office, based on a public referendum. Since then, he has sought to bring about internal stability, and improve and firmly establish democratic practice. His main concern was to bring about comprehensive and sustainable development through a series of development plans that have been successfully implemented so far. Resultantly, substantial progress has been made in both sectors of production and services such as education, health, culture and media. A continuing process of upgrading infrastructure underpinned these achievements. Moreover, Egypt has witnessed a successful economic development. The implemented economic reforms have been appreciated by world monetary and financial institutions, as unique example to be followed. What is striking in this exercise is that in carrying out economic reform, requirements of the social dimension very duly taken into consideration. At present, these is emphasis on re-charting Egypt’s urban and demographic map. This would enable the Egyptians to build a new civilization, using the most up-to-date technologies and modern tools. For dreams to come true, a set of mega projects have been launched, in order to expand Egypt’s urban and demographic map beyond the old valley and Nile Delta, that have become so overcrowded that they could no longer cope with the people’s ambitions for a better future. Major projects in the southern part of Egypt include Toshka (South Valley Delta) and Sharq al-Owainat. Those in the northern part include Port -Said project, as-Salam Canal in Sinai and North Suez Gulf Development project. These projects are all designed to alleviate overcrowded population in the old valley and Delta and expand Egypt’s inhabited area. They provide for Egypt a gateway to embark into the 21st century and 3rd millennium paving the way for building a new society based on information and communication technologies and on technological revival to assimilate the new mechanisms of the future world. President Hosni Mubarak’s decision to amend article 76 of the constitution that deals with the election of the President represents a historic landmark on the political arena.
The constitutional amendment for the first time in Egyptian history, allows citizens to elect themselves for Presidency instead of the previous system of census. This amendment represents a transformation in political reform and a thrust towards more openness in the political life of Egyptians. It aims at increasing participation in elections and raising citizens’ awareness towards political participation.

Pharonic Egypt

Menes (Aha)
Aha is known for millions of people as King Menes of Memphis. He was the founding king of the 1st Dynasty, and was the first king to unify Upper and Lower Egypt into one kingdom.
Ancient Egypt’s most predominant form of civilization began with his crowning, and did not end permanently until the beginning of the Roman era, which started with Augustus Caeser. Menes founded the city of Memphis, and chose as its location an island in the Nile, so that it would be easy to defend. He was also the founder of Crocodopolis. During his time, the Egyptian army performed raids against the Nubians in the south and expanded his sphere of influence as far as the First Cataract. His chief wife was Queen Berenib, though she was not the mother of his heir, King Djer, and his mother was Neithotepe. His death is a mystery, for, according to legend he was attacked by wild dogs and Nile crocodiles in Faiyum . Menes’ tomb resides at Saqqara, the famed necropolis of Memphis. He died at the age of Sixty Three.
Djer
Djer was the second king during the 1st Dynasty, when the crown still resided at Memphis. He was the son of Aha and one of his lesser ranked wives, a woman named Hent.
Djer built a palace at Memphis where he ruled Egypt from for fifty years. He also launched a successful military campaign to fight the Hekssus in Sinai. His name was found in an inscription on the Wadi Halfa, south of the first Cataract, proving the boundaries of his reign. Djer’s wife was Queen Herneith. He was buried in a mortuary complex which is called the True Grave of the god Osiris.
Wadj
Wadj, the third king of the1st Egyptian Dynasty. His stela is displayed at the Louvre in Paris. It is made of limestone carved by the sculptor Serekh. The stela was discovered near the ancient city of Abydos where Wadj’s mortuary complex is located. The only other place that Egyptologists found a reference to him was in an inscription near the city of Edfu, to the south of Egypt. His wife was Queen Mereneith, who acted as mentor and advisor for his successor, King Den.
Den (Udimu)
Den was the fourth king during the 1st Dynasty. Because the king came to power in Egypt as an infant, Queen Merenith was appointed as his political advisor, which essentially meant that she ruled Egypt until he was capable of doing so himself.
Den ruled Egypt for almost fifty years after Wadj. He was an energetic and athletic person, and was artistic as well. He figures in the Ebers papyrus as well as the Berlin medical Papyrus. Den was militarily actibe in the Sinai, which was justified by his interest in protecting the mineral resources of the peninsula.
His mortuary complex was built in the ancient city of Abydos, but his body was buried at Saqqara.
Anedjib
Anedjib was the fifth king during the 1st dynasty. He kept Memphis as his capitol city throughout his 14 years of rule.
Anedjib’s crown carried the symbols of both Upper and Lower Egypt, a representation of the unification of the country under his power. Historians, however, doubt that Anedjib really controlled the north, due to the fact that the northern Nomes rebelled against him constantly throughout his reign. His wife, Queen Betrest, was the mother of King Semerkhet, who was his successor. The queen provided Anedjib with legitimacy and power since she was a descendant from the Memphite royal line.
Semerkhet
Semerkhet was the sixth king of the 1st Dynasty. He was the son of King Adjib and Queen Betrest, and for unknown reasons, only ruled for eight years. Egyptologists discovered very little, save for a black stela with Semerkhet’s name carved on it.